Proven ideas from research for parents
A Child Becomes a Reader Kindergarten through Grade 3
The Partnership for Reading
Produced by RMC Research Corporation, Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Authors
Bonnie B. Armbruster, Ph.D., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Fran Lehr, M.A., Lehr & Associates, Champaign, Illinois
Jean Osborn, M. Ed., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
This publication was produced under National Institute for Literacy
Contract No. ED-00CO-0093 with RMC Research Corporation. Sandra Baxter
served as the contracting officer's technical representative. The views
expressed herein do not necessarily represent the policies of the
National Institute for Literacy. No official endorsement by the National
Institute for Literacy of any product, commodity, service, or enterprise
in this publication is intended or should be inferred.
The National Institute for Literacy
Sandra Baxter Lynn Reddy
Interim Executive Director Communications Director
Spring 2003
To order copies of this booklet, contact the National Institute for
Literacy at EdPubs, PO Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398. Call
800-228-8813 or email edpuborders@edpubs.gov. This booklet can also be
downloaded at The Partnership for Reading web site,
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading.
The National Institute for Literacy, an independent federal
organization, supports the development of high quality state, regional,
and national literacy services so that all Americans can develop the
literacy skills they need to succeed at work, at home, and in the
community.
The Partnership for Reading, a project administered by the National
Institute for Literacy, is a collaborative effort of the National
Institute for Literacy, the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development, the U.S. Department of Education, and the U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services to make evidence-based reading research
available to educators, parents, policy makers, and others with an
interest in helping all people learn to read well.
The Partnership for Reading acknowledges editorial support from C. Ralph
Adler and design support from Diane Draper, both of RMC Research
Corporation.
Contents
Introduction
The road to becoming a reader begins the day a child is
born and continues through the end of third grade. At that point, a
child must read with ease and understanding to take advantage of the
learning opportunities in fourth grade and beyond--in school and in
life.
Learning to read and write starts at home, long before children go
to school. Very early, children begin to learn about the sounds of
spoken language when they hear their family members talking, laughing,
and singing, and when they respond to all of the sounds that fill their
world. They begin to understand written language when they hear adults
read stories to them and see adults reading newspapers, magazines, and
books for themselves.
Mothers, fathers, grandparents, and caregivers,
this booklet is for you. Your role in setting your child on the road to
becoming a successful reader and writer does not end when she* begins
kindergarten.
*To make this booklet easier to read, we sometimes refer to a child as
"he" or "she." However, all of the infor- mation about how children
learn to read applies to both boys and girls.
This booklet contains:
- A short summary of what scientific research says about how children
learn to read and write
- Things you can do with your child at three
different grade levels--kindergarten, first grade, and second and third
grades--to help him become a reader, as well as what to look for in
quality reading instruction at each grade level
- A list of helpful
terms. Throughout the booklet, these terms appear in bold type.
- Ideas for books to read and organizations to contact if you would
like more help or information
Try a few activities from this booklet
with your child. You don't need special training or expensive materials.
Just include the activities in the things you already do together every
day. Make these activities part of the warm, loving relationship you are
continuing to build with your child.
The building blocks of reading and writing
The main source of information in this booklet is the report of
the National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based
Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its
Implications for Reading Instruction. This report, along with the other
reports and books listed at the back of this booklet, offer more
research-based information about how children learn to read and write.
From several decades of
research, we have learned a lot about how children learn to read and
write. This research tells us that to become more skilled and confident
readers over time, children need lots of opportunities to:
- build spoken language by talking and listening
- learn about print and books
- learn about the sounds of spoken language (this is called phonological awareness)
- learn about the letters of the alphabet
- be read to and read on their own
- learn and use letter-sound
relationships (this is called phonics) and be able to recognize words
when they see them
- spell and write
- develop their ability to
read quickly and naturally (this is called fluency)
- learn new words
and build their knowledge of what words mean (this is called vocabulary)
- build their knowledge of the world
- build their ability to
understand what they read (this is called comprehension)
Talking and listening
Remember the old saying "children should be seen and not
heard"? Research tells us that for children to become readers, they
should listen and talk a lot.
By the time children are one year old,
they already know a lot about spoken language--talking and listening.
They recognize some speech sounds. They know which sounds make the words
that are important to them. They begin to imitate those sounds. Children
learn all of this by listening to family members talk. Even "baby talk,"
which exaggerates the sounds and rhythms of words, makes a contribution
to children's ability to understand language. Children who do not hear a
lot of talk and who are not encouraged to talk themselves often have
problems learning to read.
Print and books
Even though books don't come
with operating instructions, we use them in certain ways. We hold them
right side-up. We turn the pages one at a time. We read lines of words
starting at the left and moving to the right. Knowing about print and
books and how they are used is called print awareness.
Print awareness
is an important part of knowing how to read and write. Children who know
about print understand that the words they see in print and the words
they speak and hear are related. They will use and see print a lot, even
when they're young--on signs and billboards, in alphabet books and
storybooks, and in labels, magazines, and newspapers. They see family
members use print, and they learn that print is all around them and that
it is used for different purposes.
Sounds in spoken language
Some words
rhyme. Sentences are made up of separate words. Words have parts called
syllables. The words bag, ball, and bug all begin with
the same sound.
When a child begins to notice and understand these things, he is
developing phonological awareness--the ability to hear and work with the
sounds of spoken language.
When a child also begins to understand that
spoken words are made up of separate, small sounds, he is developing
phonemic awareness. These individual sounds in spoken language are
called phonemes. For example, the word big has three phonemes, /b/, /i/,
and /g/.*
Children who have
phonemic awareness can take spoken words apart sound by sound (the name
for this is segmentation) and put together sounds to make words (the
name for this is blending). Research shows that how easily children
learn to read can depend on how much phonological and phonemic awareness
they have.
* A letter between slash marks, /b/, shows the phoneme, or
sound, that the letter represents, and not the name of the letter. For
example, the letter b represents the sound /b/.
The ABCs
Singing the alphabet song is more than just a fun
activity. Children who go to kindergarten already knowing the shapes and
names of the letters of the alphabet, and how to write them, have a much
easier time learning to read. Knowing the names and shapes of letters is
sometimes called alphabetic knowledge.
Reading aloud
Reading aloud to
children has been called the single most important activity for building
the knowledge required for success in reading. Reading aloud, with
children participating actively, helps children learn new words, learn
more about the world, learn about written language, and see the
connection between words that are spoken and words that are written.
Phonics and word-study skills
Phonics instruction helps beginning
readers see the relationships between the sounds of spoken language and
the letters of written language. Understanding these relationships gives
children a tool that they can use to recognize familiar words quickly
and to figure out words they haven't seen before.
Word-study instruction
is the step that follows phonics instruction. It helps older children
learn to apply their phonics knowledge and knowledge of word parts (such
as prefixes, suffixes, and root words) as they read and
write words.
Rapid word recognition means that children spend less time struggling
over words and have more time getting meaning from what they read,
which, of course, is the real purpose for reading.
Spelling and writing
Children learn more about how print works when they spell and write on
their own. When they begin to write, children draw and scribble. Later,
they use what they are learning about sounds and letters when they try
to write words. This often is called invented, or developmental,
spelling. Because invented spelling encourages children to think about
the sounds in words and how the sounds are related to letters, it can
help preschool and kindergarten children develop both as readers and
writers. However, after kindergarten, children need well-organized,
systematic lessons in spelling to help them become good spellers.
Fluency
Fluency is the word for being able to read quickly and
accurately. Fluent readers recognize words automatically. They are able
to group words quickly to help them get the meaning of what they read.
When fluent readers read aloud, they read smoothly and with expression.
Their reading sounds natural, like speech. Readers who have not yet
developed fluency read slowly, word by word. Sometimes, their oral
reading is choppy and plodding. They may make a lot of mistakes.
Most beginning readers do not read fluently. However, by the end of first
grade, children should be reading their grade level books fluently.
Vocabulary and knowledge of the world
Vocabulary is the name for words
we must know in order to listen, speak, read, and write effectively.
Time and again researchers have found strong connections between the
size of children's vocabularies, how well they comprehend what they
read, and how well they do in school.
Children who are poor readers often do not have the vocabulary
knowledge they need to get meaning from what they read. Because reading
is difficult for them, they cannot and do not read very much. As a
result, they may not see new words in print often enough to learn them.
Good readers read more, become better readers, and learn more words;
poor readers read less, become poorer readers, and learn fewer words.
Children learn vocabulary in two ways: indirectly, by hearing and seeing
words as they listen, talk, and read; and directly by parents and
teachers teaching them the meanings of certain words.
Vocabulary and
knowledge of the world are, of course, very closely tied together.
Children who know something about the world are much better able to
understand what they read about in school.
Comprehension
Comprehension
means getting meaning from what we read. It is the heart of reading.
Research shows that knowledge of letter-sound relationships and
comprehension go hand-in-hand. If children can sound out the words, but
don't understand what they are reading, they're not really reading.
Children can build their comprehension by learning to use mental plans,
or strategies, to get meaning as they read. These strategies include
using what they already know to make sense of what they read, making
predictions, paying attention to the way a reading selection is
organized, creating mental pictures, asking questions, and summarizing.
Kindergarten
What to do at home
Talk often with your child to build listening and talking skills
- Talk with your child often...as you eat together, shop
for groceries, walk to school, wait for a bus. As she gets ready for
school, ask about the stories and poems she is reading and what projects
she has in science or art time. Ask about friends and classmates
(encourage her to use their names) and to describe the games they like
to play together. Ask questions that will encourage her to talk, and not
just give "yes" or "no" answers.
- Have your child use his imagination
to make up and tell you stories. Ask questions that will encourage him
to expand the stories.
Parent Talk
"Why didn't the dog just run away?"
"Where did the boy live?" "What kind of eyes did the monster have?"
- Have a conversation about recent family photographs. Ask your child to
describe each picture: who is in it, what's happening, and where the
picture was taken.
- Listen to your child's questions patiently and
answer them just as patiently. If you don't know the answer to a
question, work together to find one (look things up in a book or on the
computer, for example).
- Talk about books that you've read together.
Ask your child about favorite parts and characters and answer his
questions about events or characters.
- Pay attention to how much TV your
child is watching. Set aside "no TV" time each day and use that time to
talk together.
- Tell stories about your childhood. Make a story out of
something that happened, such as a special birthday or a visit to a zoo
or city.
Show your child how books and print work
- As you read with
your child, have him point out such things as front and back covers and
the title. Have him point out the names of authors and illustrators and
tell what those people do. Have him show you where you should start
reading on a page.
- Help your child make connections between print and
pictures as you read. Have him find details in the pictures, then help
him find and point to the words that name those details.
Focus your child's attention on the sounds of spoken language
- Sing or say nursery rhymes and songs.
- Play word games.
Parent Talk
"How many words can you say that rhyme with fox? With bill?"
- Read a story or
poem and ask your child to listen for words that begin with the same
sound. Have her say the words. Then have her say another word that
begins with that sound.
- As you read, stop and say a simple word. Have
your child say the sounds in the word, write the letters for the sounds,
and then read what he wrote.
Parent Talk
"'The dog is big.' Big. Can you
say the sounds in big? Now can you write the letters for the sounds?
Good. Now read the word to me."
Have your child identify and name the letters of the alphabet
- Point out letters and have your child name
them.
- Make an alphabet book with your child. Have him draw pictures
or cut pictures from magazines or use old photos. Paste each picture
into the book. With your child, write the first letter of the word that
stands for the object or person in the picture (for example, B for bird,
M for milk, and so on).
Support what your child is learning in school
about the relationship between letters and sounds
- Point out labels,
boxes, newspapers, magazines, and signs that display words with
letter-sound relationships that your child is learning in kindergarten.
- Listen to your child read words and books from school. Be patient
and listen as your child practices. Let your child know you are proud of
what he is learning.
Encourage your child to spell and write
- When your child is writing, encourage him to spell words by using what he
knows about sounds and letters.
- Encourage your child to write notes,
e-mails, and letters to family members and friends. You may have your
child tell you the message for you to write and include with her
original work.
- Have your child create his own picture book made with
his own drawings or with pictures that he cuts from magazines. Help him
to label the pictures. Include pictures that illustrate the new words he
is learning.
Help your child build vocabulary, knowledge of the world,
and comprehension
- As you read aloud, pause from time to time to ask
him about the meaning of the book. Help him make connections between his
life and what's happening in the book. Explain new ideas and words to
him. Encourage your child to ask questions about the book. Ask him to
retell the story, or to tell in his own words what the book was about.
Parent Talk
"What was your favorite part of the story? Why did you like
it?"
"What new things did you learn from this book?"
"Why do you think
Sam got lost? Sam said he wanted to explore the forest. Explore means he
wanted to find out what was in the forest."
- Use and repeat important
words such as names of buildings, parks, zoos, cities, and other places
that you visit.
- Help your child develop an interest in the world.
Read to him from your magazines and newspapers, as well as from
informational (nonfiction) children's books. Help him to explore ideas
and interests by using appropriate web sites.
What to look for in kindergarten classrooms
In effective kindergarten classrooms, you will
see literacy instruction that focuses on...
Developing talking and listening abilities
The teacher...
shows children appropriate ways to
talk and listen, ask and answer questions, and give and follow
directions.
The children...
talk with teachers and classmates about what
they have read and heard. They retell stories that they have heard read
aloud. They make up and tell their own stories. They may pretend to be
characters in play centers.
"Let's play restaurant!" "I like this book. It's about snakes!"
"I'll be the princess, and you be the prince."
Teaching about books and print
The teacher...
shows children how books should be handled, how
they are read from front to back, from the top to the bottom of a page,
and from left to right on a page. He talks about the various kinds of
print in the classroom, including their meaning and purpose.
The children...
enjoy books and reading. They see lots of print around
them being used in many ways. They are curious about the print and eager
to learn what it means.
"What does this word say?"
"You're supposed to write your name on your folder." "See that list over
there? I know those color names!"
Teaching about the alphabet
The teacher...
helps children learn the names and shapes of
all the letters of the alphabet and encourages the children to play with
letters and to write using letters.
The children...
listen to the
teacher read them an alphabet book, then sing the alphabet song. Some
children play with plastic letters, while others say the letters as they
write their own names.
"That's M!--M is the first
letter in my name." "I'm going to find all the e's on this page." "This
is my favorite ABC book."
Teaching the sounds of spoken language
The teacher...
provides explicit
instruction in phonological awareness and phonemic awareness. The
teacher has children put together sounds (blending) to make words and
break words into separate sounds (segmentation). As the children write,
he promotes phonemic awareness by encouraging them to use what they know
about the sounds that make up words.
The children...
have fun with the
sounds of words. Early in the year, they tell which words in a story
rhyme; they may make up their own nonsense rhymes. A little later in the
year, they listen for the beginning sounds of the words in a poem. They
also may clap out the number of syllables in their names and in words.
Late in the year, they put together and take apart the separate sounds
in words. They begin to relate sounds to letters and to write the
letters for the sounds that they hear.
Phonemic awareness: What blending and segmentation look like
Phoneme blending: teachers say a word phoneme by phoneme,
then have the children
repeat the sequence of phonemes and combine the phonemes to say the
word.
Teacher: /s/ /u/ /n/
Children: /s/ /u/ /n/; sun.
Phoneme segmentation: teachers say a word, then have the children break it into
its separate phonemes, saying each one as they tap out or count it.
Teacher: slim
Children: /s/ /l/ /i/ /m/.
Teacher: How many sounds are in slim?
Children: Four sounds.
Teaching phonics
The teacher...
uses explicit instruction to teach
children a set of the most useful letter-sound relationships.
The children...
read easy books that contain words with the letter-sound
relationships they are learning. They are also writing the relationships
they know in words, sentences, messages, and their own stories.
Developing spelling and writing
The teacher...
has children practice
their new writing skills in groups with other children and at learning
centers. She makes spelling development a part of writing activities.
The children...
depending on the time of the year, scribble, draw, label
pictures, and use their growing knowledge of sounds and letters to write
messages. They are becoming aware of correct spellings for some words,
especially their names.
Building vocabulary and knowledge of the world
The teacher...
talks with the children about important new words and ideas as she reads aloud. She
helps them connect the new words to their own knowledge and experiences.
She discusses words that are most important for understanding the
reading selection. She emphasizes words that the children are likely to
see and use often and teaches children the meaning of new words over an
extended period of time. She thinks about the content of the books that
she reads to the children and chooses books that build on and expand
children's knowledge.
The children...
learn lots of new words and like
to share their new words with their families. They see the teacher's
enthusiasm for words and enjoy playing with words and language. They use
words that are important to their schoolwork, such as the names for
colors, shapes, and numbers. They explore new ideas and learn new words.
"This is the picture I drew today. It's an octopus.
I'll show you--it has eight legs!"
"We learned about circles today. This plate is a circle."
Building comprehension
The teacher...
reads aloud to children often and discusses books before, during, and
after reading. She reads many different kinds of books, including
"make-believe" (fiction), "real" (nonfiction), and poetry. She shows
children how good readers get meaning from what they read.
The children...
listen to and understand what is read to them. They answer
the teacher's questions. They make connections between what they already
know and what they are reading about. They talk about what they learned
from non-fiction books they have read, and they retell or act out
important events in stories. They identify the characters, settings, and
events in stories.
"I learned that you can't see across the
ocean!" "I have a cat that looks just like the cat in that story!"
"I want to be the Little Red Hen!"
What children should be able to do by the end of kindergarten
The following is a list of some accomplishments
that you can expect of your child by the end of kindergarten. This
list is based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood
education, and child development. Remember, though, that children
don't develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your
child may be more advanced or need more help than others in her
age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child's
abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as
guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules. If you have concerns
about your child's reading development, talk to his teacher.
Books and print
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
- Knows the parts of a book and how books are held and read
- Identifies a book's title and understands what authors and illustrators do
- Follows print from left to right and from top to bottom of a page when stories are read aloud
- Understands the relationship between print and pictures
- Understands that the message of most books is in the print and not the pictures
The alphabet
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
- Recognizes the shapes and names of all the letters in the alphabet (both uppercase and lowercase letters)
- Writes many uppercase and lowercase letters on his own
Sounds in spoken language
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
- Understands that spoken words are made up of separate sounds
- Recognizes and makes rhymes
- Identifies words that have the same beginning sound
- Puts together, or blends, spoken sounds into simple words
Phonics and word recognition
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
- Knows a number of letter-sound relationships
- Understands that the order of letters in a written word represents the order of sounds in a spoken word
- Recognizes some common words on sight, such as a, the, I, said, you, is, are
Reading
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
- Listens carefully to books read aloud
- Asks and answers questions about stories
- Uses what he already knows to help him understand a story
- Predicts what will happen in a story based on pictures or information in the story
- Retells and/or acts out stories
- Knows the difference between "made-up" (fiction) and "real" (nonfiction) books
and the difference between stories and poems
Spelling and writing
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
- Uses phonemic awareness and letter knowledge to spell and write words
- Begins to spell some words correctly
- Writes his own first and last name and the first names of some friends, classmates, or family members
- Writes some letters and words as they are said to her
Vocabulary and knowledge of the world
By the end of kindergarten, a child . . .
- Plays with and is curious about words and language
- Uses new words in her own speech
- Knows and uses words that are important to school work, such as the names for colors, shapes, and numbers
- Knows and uses words that are important to daily life, such as street names
and addresses and names for community workers
The main source for this list of accomplishments is
Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children.
For more information about this book, see Suggested
Reading in the back of this booklet.
First Grade
What to do at home
The top three
- Talk often with your child to build listening and talking skills.
- Read to and with your child--often. Talk to him about the words and ideas in books.
- Ask your child's teacher how
you can help your child practice at home what he is learning at school.
If your child needs help with developing phonemic awareness or
identifying and naming letters of the alphabet, read the suggestions in
the kindergarten section of this booklet. Remember that these two
skills are very important in helping children learn to read and write.
Support what your child is learning in school about relationships
between letters and sounds
- Listen to your child read books from
school. Be patient as your child practices. Let him know you are proud
of his reading.
- Say the sounds of letters and ask your child to write
the letter or letters that represent the sound.
- Ask your child to
point out the letter-sound relationships he is learning in all of the
things you are reading together--books, calendars, labels, magazines,
and newspapers.
- Play word games. On cards, write words that contain
the letter-sound relationships he is learning at school. Take turns
choosing a card and blending the sounds to make the word. Then use the
word in a sentence.
Encourage your child to spell and write
- Say a word your child knows
and have him repeat the word. Then help him write the word the way he
hears it.
- Write a word on paper and cut the letters apart (or use
plastic or foam letters). Mix the letters and have your child spell a
word by putting the letters in order.
- As you are reading with your
child, point out words that have similar spellings, such as hop and pop.
Ask him to write similar words, for example, top, mop, and cop.
- Encourage your child to write often--for example, letters and thank-you
notes, simple stories, and grocery lists.
Help your child build vocabulary, knowledge of the world, and
comprehension
- When you read together, stop now and then to talk about
the meaning of the book. Help her make connections between what's
happening in the book and her own life and experiences, or to other
books you've read together. Ask her questions so that she talks about
the information in a non-fiction book, or about the characters or events
of a fiction book. Encourage your child to ask questions. Ask her to
explain what the book was about, in her own words.
- Before you come to
the end of a story, ask your child to predict what might happen next or
how the story will end.
- Talk about new words and ideas that your
child has read or heard. Ask her to make up sentences with the new words
or use the words in other situations. Help her to find out more about
new ideas by using appropriate web sites.
- Read magazines and
newspapers together. Get him interested in what's happening in other
parts of the world.
What to look for in first grade classrooms
In effective first grade classrooms, you will see literacy instruction that
focuses on...
Developing talking and listening abilities
The teacher...
helps children use language that is appropriate for different audiences
and purposes.
The children...
use speaking and listening for many
purposes, including getting and giving information, giving opinions, and
talking with teachers and classmates. They talk about what has been read
to them or what they have read. They retell stores that they have heard
read aloud. They make up and tell stories based on their own experiences.
They use the more formal language expected at school, such as complete
sentences.
Teaching about books and print
The teacher...
reads aloud to
the children often, sharing many different types of books and other
print materials. She shows her enthusiasm for reading and her eagerness
for the children to learn to read. As she reads, she shows the parts of
print such as the beginnings and endings of sentences, new paragraphs,
and different punctuation marks.
The children...
are excited about being
read to and about learning to read. They recognize the titles of books
and ask the teacher to read their favorites. They spend part of the day
looking at books or pretend reading books of their choice.
Teaching about the alphabet
The teacher...
makes sure that children can recognize
and name all of the letters of the alphabet, both uppercase and
lowercase.
The children...
can quickly name the letters of the alphabet
in order and recognize all letters. They use their knowledge of letters
when they write.
Teaching phonemic awareness
The teacher...
provides
explicit instruction in phonemic awareness. She shows the children how
to do phonemic awareness activities and helps them with feedback. The
activities are short and fun. (See the next page for examples of each
activity.)
The children...
practice a lot with phonemes. For example,
they clap out the sounds they hear in words (segmentation), put sounds
together to make words (blending), add or drop sounds from words
(phoneme addition and deletion), and replace sounds in words (phoneme
substitution).
Phonemic awareness activities that you may see in first grade classrooms
Phoneme deletion: Children recognize the word that remains when you take
away a phoneme.
Example
Teacher: What is space without the /s/?
Children: Space without the /s/ is pace.
Phoneme addition: Children make a new word by adding a phoneme to a word.
Example
Teacher: What word do you have if you add /p/ to the beginning of lace?
Children: Place.
Phoneme substitution: Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a new word.
Example
Teacher: The word is rag. Change /g/ to /n/. What's the new word?
Children: Ran.
Teaching phonics and word recognition
The teacher...
explicitly teaches
the children letter-sound relationships in a clear and useful sequence.
The teacher also teaches children "irregular" words they will see and
read often, but that do not follow the letter-sound relationships they
are learning. These are often called sight words--words such as said,
is, was, are.
The children...
learn to blend sounds to read words--first
one-syllable words and, later, words with more than one syllable. They
read easy books that include the letter-sound relationships they are
learning as well as sight words that they have been taught. They
recognize and figure out the meaning of compound words (words made of
two words put together, such as background). They practice writing the
letter-sound relationships in words, sentences, messages, and their own
stories.
Phonics instruction
Although there are several different approaches to
teaching phonics, here are some activities that you are likely to see in
first grade classrooms.
- Children sort out objects and pictures by
the beginning sounds they have studied such as: /b/, /c/, and /t/. They
put the objects in baskets labeled with the beginning letter. "I have a
turtle. It goes in the T basket." "This cup goes in the C basket."
- The teacher teaches the -ing spelling pattern and sounds, pointing
out -ing words in books. The children look for examples of -ing words in
books in the classroom library. "I found singing!" "This book has wing!"
They copy the words on index cards and add them to the word wall under
the heading "-ing words."
- The teacher helps children use plastic
letters to spell out words containing sounds they have studied. She
starts with two letter words and moves on to longer words. "Find two
letters and make the word in. Now add one letter to make the word pin.
Now add a letter to make the word spin. Using those same letters, change
the word to pins."
- The teacher reads a poem written on chart paper
to the class, pointing to each word as he reads. When he's done, he
invites children to circle the words beginning with the /p/ sound,
saying the word as they circle it.
Developing spelling and writing
The teacher...
provides opportunities for children to practice writing skills independently in both whole
group and learning center settings. She makes spelling a part of writing
activities. She helps children begin to think through their writing
efforts--planning, writing drafts, and revising.
The children...
use writing more and more as a way to communicate ideas. They begin to
organize their writing by planning, writing a draft copy, and editing
it. They continue to use some invented spelling, but are learning the
correct spellings of most of the words that they write.
Building vocabulary and knowledge of the world
The teacher...
talks with the children about important new vocabulary words and helps them relate the
new words to their own knowledge and experience. He makes a point of
using new words in classroom discussions. He urges the children to use
these words when they talk and write.
The children...
talk about the meanings of words and use new words when they talk and write. They begin
to recognize words that are alike (synonyms) and words that are opposite
(antonyms). They also begin to recognize the roles of different words in
sentences--words that name (nouns) and words that show action (verbs).
They understand that the language they use in school is more formal than
the language they use at home and with friends.
Building comprehension
The teacher...
reads aloud to children often and discusses books with
them before, during, and after reading. The teacher listens to children
read aloud, corrects their errors, and asks them questions about what
they are reading. He shows children how to use mental plans, or
strategies, to get meaning from what they read.
The children...
read aloud with accuracy and show that they understand what they're reading.
They read books (fiction, nonfiction, and poetry) that are appropriate
for the time in the school year. They make connections between what they
already know and what they are reading. They pay attention to their
reading and recognize when something doesn't make sense. They summarize
and discuss what they read with classmates and their teacher. They
choose to read on their own and enjoy reading.
What children should be able to do by the end of first grade
The following is a list of some
accomplishments you can expect of your child by the end of first grade.
This list is based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood
education, and child development. Remember, though, that children don't
develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your child may
be more advanced or need more help than others in her age group. You
are, of course, the best judge of your child's abilities and needs. You
should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast
rules. If you have concerns or questions about your child's reading
development, talk to his teacher.
Books and print
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
- Knows the difference between letters and words
- Knows that there are spaces between words in print
- Knows that print represents spoken language and contains meaning
- Knows some of the parts of print, such as the beginnings and endings of sentences,
where paragraphs begin and end, and different punctuation marks
- Begins to understand why people read--to learn and enjoy The alphabet
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
- Can recognize and name all of the letters of the alphabet
Sounds in spoken language
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
- Can count the number of syllables in a word
- Can put together and break apart the sounds of most one-syllable words
Phonics and word recognition
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
- Can show how spoken words are represented by
written letters that are arranged in a specific order
- Can read one-syllable words using what he knows about phonics
- Uses phonics to sound out words he doesn't know
- Can recognize some irregularly spelled words, such as have, said, you, and are
Reading
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
- Reads aloud first grade books and understands what they mean
- Can tell when he is having problems understanding what he is reading
- Reads and understands simple written instructions
- Predicts what will happen next in a story
- Discusses what she already knows about topics of books she is
reading
- Can ask questions (how, why, what if?) about books she is
reading
- Can describe, in his own words, what he has learned from a
book he is reading
- Can give a reason for why he is reading a book
(to be entertained, to follow directions, to learn about a non-fiction
topic, for example)
Spelling and writing
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
- Uses invented (or developmental) spelling to try to spell words on his own
- Understands that there is a correct way to spell words
- Uses simple punctuation marks and capital letters
- Writes for different purposes--stories, explanations, letters, lists
- Writes things for others to read (by thinking of ideas,
writing draft copies, and revising drafts)
Vocabulary
By the end of first grade, a child . . .
- Uses language with more control (such as speaking in complete sentences)
- Understands that the language used in school is more formal than the
language used at home and with friends
- Talks about the meaning of words and uses new words when he speaks and writes
- Begins to see that some words mean the same thing
(synonyms) and some words have opposite meanings (antonyms)
- Begins to recognize that words play different roles in sentences (for example,
some words--nouns--name things and some words--verbs--show action)
The main source for the list of accomplishments is Preventing Reading
Difficulties in Young Children. For more information about this book,
see Suggested Reading in the back of this booklet.
Second and Third Grades
What to do at home
The top three
- Talk often with your child to build listening and speaking skills.
- Read to and with
your child often. Talk to her about the words and ideas in books.
Encourage your child to read on her own.
- Ask your child's teacher
how you can help your child practice at home what she is learning at
school.
Use reading opportunities to help your child develop fluency
- Listen to your child read books that he has brought home from school. Be
patient as your child practices reading. Let him know that you are proud
of his reading.
- If your child is not a very fluent reader (that is,
she reads slowly and makes lots of mistakes), ask her to reread a
paragraph or page a few times.
Find opportunities for your child to spell and write
- Encourage your child to write often--for example,
letters and thank-you notes to relatives and friends, simple stories,
e-mails, and items for the grocery list.
- Help your child learn the correct spellings of words.
Find opportunities to help your child
develop vocabulary, knowledge of the world, and comprehension
- Talk about new words that your child has read or heard. Ask her to make up
sentences with the new words or use the words in other situations.
- Help your child use the dictionary or thesaurus to check on the meanings
of new words she reads or hears.
- Help your child become aware of
prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Point them out in books you are
reading together or in print materials around the house. Ask her to
think of other words related to the words you are discussing.
Parent Talk
"Can you think of any other words that have the word move in them?"
(Some possible answers are moveable, movement, moving, and moved.)
"Here's the word disappear. What other words do you know that start with
dis-?" (Some possible answers are disappoint, disagree, and disbelieve.)
- Show your child how to use context--the sentences, words, and
pictures around an unfamiliar word--to figure out the word's meaning.
Parent Talk
Read a line from a book, such as this line from Eric Carle's
Pancakes, Pancakes! "Take a sickle and cut as much wheat as the donkey
can carry." Then ask a question, such as "Look at the picture of Jack
cutting the wheat. What is he using? That's right, it's a sickle. A
sickle is a tool for cutting wheat and other kinds of grain."
- As you read a book with your child, stop now and then to talk to her about the
meaning of the book. Help her relate the experiences or events in the
book to experiences or events in her life or to other books you have
read together. Ask her questions that encourage her to talk about the
information in a nonfiction book, or about the characters or events of a
fiction book. Encourage your child to ask questions. Ask her to tell in
her own words what the book was about.
What to look for in second and third grade classrooms
In effective second and third grade classrooms,
you will see literacy instruction that focuses on...
Promoting reading accuracy
The teacher...
helps children continue to use their knowledge
of phonics to sound out and pronounce new words. The teacher helps
children recognize simple, common spelling patterns in words. She also
helps children learn the spellings and meanings of word parts such as
prefixes, suffixes, and root words.
The teacher...
become more able to read words accurately by using their knowledge of phonics. They use the
other words in a sentence (the context) to figure out the pronunciations
and meanings of new words.
Building fluency
The teacher...
reads aloud to children, modeling fluent reading. She makes sure that children are
working on developing fluency and monitors their progress. By listening
to children read aloud, or by sometimes timing children's reading rates,
the teacher ensures that children are becoming fluent readers.
The children...
are becoming more fluent readers by reading, reading,
reading. They are improving their oral reading fluency by rereading
selections aloud.
Fluency instruction
In second and third grade classrooms, effective
instruction will include some of the following activities for building
fluency.
- Teachers listen to individual children read aloud and
provide assistance and encouragement as they repeatedly read until they
are fluent.
- Teachers read aloud and children read along as a group.
The children repeat the reading until they are fluent.
- In a
listening center, children read along in their books as they listen to a
fluent reader read a book on an audiotape. The children read with the
tape until they can read the book without support.
- Pairs of
children read paragraphs from a book to each other, taking turns and
assisting each other until they can read the paragraphs fluently.
- Teachers time children as they read aloud paragraphs or pages of a
selection. They also note children's reading errors.
Teaching spelling and writing
The teacher...
teaches some common spelling patterns. He
encourages children to write in many different forms, such as letters,
stories, poetry, reviews, directions, and reports. He helps children
prepare for and plan their writing. He teaches them how to revise, edit,
and refine what they have written and helps them write using a computer.
The children...
write often, and for different audiences and purposes.
They correctly spell previously studied words. When they spell new
words, they represent all of the sounds in the words. In their writing,
the children use figurative language, dialogue, and vivid descriptions.
They read their writing to others and discuss one another's writing,
offering helpful suggestions.
Developing vocabulary and knowledge of the world
The teacher...
is excited about words and shows students that they
have a personal interest in learning new and intriguing words. He tries
to develop children's awareness of and interest in words, their
meanings, and their power. As the teacher reads aloud to children, he
discusses some of the important new words in the book. He relates new
words to words the children already know and to their experiences. The
teacher encourages children to read a lot, both in school and outside of
school. He encourages them to explore topics that interest them and to
use a variety of sources of information, including the Internet.
The children...
are interested in learning new words and are eager to share
new vocabulary at school and at home. They are learning how to figure
out the meanings of unknown words by using word parts such as prefixes,
suffixes, and root words. They are able to use different parts of speech
correctly, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They read a
lot on their own, and explore topics independently, often using
computers.
Vocabulary instruction
In second and third grade classrooms, effective
instruction will include both specific word instruction and instruction
in word learning strategies.
Specific word instruction
- Teachers teach specific words from selections the students are about to read.
These words are important for the students to know in order to
understand what they will read.
- Teachers use the new words over an extended period of time.
- The children see, hear, and work with the
words in many ways and in various contexts.
Word learning strategies
- Teachers show children how to use the dictionary and thesaurus to
learn about the meanings of words. Teachers show how some words have
more than one definition, and they teach children how to find the right
definition for their particular situation.
- Teachers teach children
how to use word parts (prefixes, suffixes, and root words) to determine
the meaning of unknown words.
- Teachers provide instruction in how
to use the meanings of known words in a reading selection (context) to
figure out the meaning of unknown words.
Increasing comprehension
The teacher...
guides children's understanding of what they are reading by
discussing selections with them before, during, and after reading.
The teacher shows children how to use simple strategies to get meaning from
what they read.
The children...
read many different kinds of books, both
with the teacher's guidance and on their own. They offer answers to
"how," "why," and "what-if" questions, and read to find the answers to
their own questions. They compare and contrast characters and events
across stories. They explain and describe new information in their own
words. They also interpret information from diagrams, charts, and
graphs.
Reading comprehension instruction
Quality instruction includes teaching
children strategies that they can use to get meaning from the materials
they read. These comprehension strategies include being aware of how
well they comprehend a selection, using graphic organizers, answering
questions, asking questions, recognizing the way stories are organized,
and summarizing.
To teach comprehension strategies, teachers first
demonstrate the strategy, tell why it is important, and how, when, and
where to use it. Then the children practice the strategy until they are
able to use it on their own. Here are some examples of strategy
instruction:
- To help children understand and remember what they
read, a teacher presents a diagram called a "story map" that shows the
structure, or organization, of simple stories. (See the story map
example on the next page.) She and the children talk about the story
they have just read--its setting (where it takes place), the characters,
the problems the characters face, the different events in the story, the
resolutions of the characters' problems, and the theme or moral of the
story. As they talk, the teacher fills in the story map. After several
lessons with their teacher, the children are able to complete story maps
on their own.
- To help children better understand and remember what
they have read, a teacher teaches them how to ask themselves "main idea"
questions about what they are reading. The class has just finished
reading a selection about redwood trees in an informational book. The
teacher gives the children several examples of main idea questions and
contrasts them with detail questions. He points out that the main idea
questions often start with "why" or "how." Then, under his guidance, the
children practice asking main idea questions about several more
selections in the book.
- To help children understand, learn from,
and remember the information in their social studies textbook, a teacher
helps them learn how to write a summary. She demonstrates how to write a
summary of one of the sections in the chapter they are reading. She
shows them how to make use of the section headings and the topic
sentences of each paragraph. She then shows the children how to
eliminate details. Under her direction, the children work together to
write summaries of several sections of a chapter in their social studies
textbook. In subsequent lessons the children write summaries of the
chapters in their science book. The teacher provides feedback so that
children include the important parts of the chapters in their summaries.
A Story Map for "The Three Little Pigs" |
Setting |
A make-believe time and place |
Characters |
Mother pig, three little pigs, big bad wolf |
Problem or Goal |
The three little pigs are ready to move out of their mother's house and live on their own. |
Event 1 |
The first little pig builds a house of straw. The big bad wolf blows the house down. |
Event 2 |
The second little pig builds a house of sticks. The big bad wolf blows the house down. |
Event 3 |
The third little pig builds a house of bricks. The big bad wolf cannot blow the house down. |
Event 4 |
The big bad wolf runs away or is killed (depending on version). |
Solution |
The three little pigs live happily ever after in the safe brick house. |
Theme or Moral |
Hard work pays off in the end. |
In second and third grades, children improve their word-recognition and
word-study skills and develop fluency--their ability to read quickly and
accurately. These years also are the time to extend comprehension and
vocabulary knowledge and to refine writing and spelling skills.
It is critical that children are up to "reading speed" by the end of third
grade. Children who fail to make good progress in reading by the time
they enter fourth grade are likely to have trouble in the upper grades
and to drop out of school before graduating.
The following are lists of some accomplishments that you can expect of your child by
the end of second and third grades. These lists are based on research in the fields
of reading, early childhood education, and child development. Remember,
though, that children don't develop and learn at the same pace and in
the same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more help than
others in her age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your
child's abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as
guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules. If you have concerns or
questions about your child's reading development, talk to his teacher.
What children should be able to do by the end of second grade
Phonics and word recognition
By the end of second grade, a child...
- Can read a large number of regularly spelled one- and two-syllable words
- Figures out how to read a large
number of words with more than two syllables
- Uses knowledge of
phonics to sound out unfamiliar words
- Accurately reads many sight
words
Reading
By the end of second grade, a child ...
- Reads and
understands a variety of second grade level fiction and nonfiction books
- Knows how to read for specific purposes and to seek answers to
specific questions
- Answers "how," "why," and "what-if" questions
- Interprets information from diagrams, charts, and graphs
- Recalls information, main ideas, and details after reading
- Compares and connects information read in different books and
articles
- Takes part in creative responses to stories, such as
dramatizations of stories and oral presentations
Spelling and writing
By the end of second grade, a child ...
- Pays attention to how words are spelled
- Correctly spells words he has studied
- Spells a word the way it sounds if she doesn't know how to spell it
- Writes for many different purposes
- Writes different types of compositions
(for example, stories, reports, and letters)
- Makes good judgments about what to include in her writing
- Takes part in writing
conferences and then revises and edits what he has written
- Pays attention to the mechanics of writing (for example, spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation) in the final versions of compositions
Vocabulary
By the end of second grade, a child ...
- Wants to learn new words and share those words at school and home
- Uses clues from the context to figure out what words mean
- Uses knowledge of word
parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words to figure out word meanings
- Increases vocabulary through the use of synonyms and antonyms
- Can use different parts of speech correctly, including
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
- Learns more new words through independent reading
- Explores and investigates topics of interest on her own
What children should be able to do by the end of third grade
Phonics and word recognition
By the end of third grade, a child...
- Uses phonics knowledge and word
parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes) to figure out how to pronounce words
she doesn't recognize
Reading
By the end of third grade, a child . . .
- Reads with fluency
- Reads a variety of third grade level texts
(for example, story books, informational books, magazine articles,
computer screens) with fluency and comprehension
- Reads longer stories and chapter books independently
- Summarizes major points from both fiction and non-fiction books
- Identifies and then discusses specific words or phrases that interfere with comprehension
- Discusses the themes or messages of stories
- Asks "how," "why," and "what-if" questions
- Distinguishes cause from effect, fact from opinion, and main ideas from supporting details
- Uses information
gathered and his own reasoning to evaluate the explanations and opinions
he reads about
- Understands and reads graphics and charts
- Uses context clues to get meaning from what she reads
Spelling and writing
By the end of third grade, a child...
- Correctly spells previously studied words
- Independently reviews her own written work for errors
in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation
- Begins to use literary
words and sentences in his writing, such as figurative language
- Combines information in compositions from a variety of sources,
including books, articles, and computer information
- With assistance
from teachers and classmates, edits and revises her compositions to make
them easier to read and understand
- Discusses her own writing with
other children and responds helpfully to the writing of other children
Vocabulary
By the end of third grade, a child...
- Wants to learn and share new words at school and at home
- Uses clues from context to figure out word meanings
- Uses her knowledge of word parts such as
prefixes, suffixes, and root words to figure out word meanings
- Increases his vocabulary through the use of synonyms and antonyms
- Is able to use different parts of speech correctly, including
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
- Develops her vocabulary and knowledge through independent reading
- Explores and investigates topics of interest on his own
- Uses a variety of sources to find information, including computers
The main source for this list of
accomplishments is Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children.
For more information about this book, see Suggested Reading in the back
of this booklet.
Some helpful terms to know
Teachers and day care providers might use these terms when talking to
you about how your child is learning to read. Some of them are used in
this booklet.
alphabetic knowledge Knowing the names and shapes of the
letters of the alphabet.
alphabetic principle The understanding that
written letters represent sounds. For example, the word big has three
sounds and three letters.
big books Oversized books that allow for the
sharing of print and illustrations with a group of children.
blending
Putting together individual sounds to make spoken words.
comprehension
The ability to understand and gain meaning from what has been read.
decodable books Books that are made up of words that contain only the
letter-sound relationships that the children are learning, along with a
few words that are taught as sight words.
decode The ability to
recognize and read words by translating the letters into speech sounds
to determine the word's pronunciation and meaning.
developmental spelling The use of letter-sound relationship
information to attempt to write words.
emergent literacy The view that literacy learning begins at
birth and is encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful
reading and writing activities.
environmental print Print that is a part
of everyday life, such as signs, billboards, labels, and business logos.
experimental writing Efforts by young children to experiment with
writing by creating pretend and real letters and by organizing scribbles
and marks on paper.
explicit instruction Direct, structured, systematic
teaching of a task.
fluency The ability to read text accurately and
quickly and with expression and comprehension.
graphic organizers
Diagrams that visually represent the organization and relationships of
ideas in a text.
invented spelling See developmental spelling. irregular
words Frequently used words that don't follow the letter-sound
relationship rules that children are learning.
leveled books Books that
have been assigned a particular level (usually a number or letter, such
as Level 1 or Level B) intended to indicate how difficult the book is
for children to read.
literacy Includes all the activities involved in
speaking, listening, reading, writing, and appreciating both spoken and
written language.
phonemes The smallest parts of spoken language that
combine to form words. For example, the word hit is made up of three
phonemes (/h/ /i/ /t/) and differs by one phoneme from the words pit,
hip, and hot.
phonemic awareness The ability to hear and identify the
individual sounds in spoken words.
phonics The relationship between the
sounds of spoken words and the individual letters or groups of letters
that represent those sounds in written words.
phonological awareness The
understanding that spoken language is made up of individual and separate
sounds. Phonological awareness activities can involve work with rhymes,
words, sentences, syllables, and phonemes.
predictable books Books that
have repeated words or sentences, rhymes, or other patterns.
prefix A
word part such as re-, un-, or pre- that is added to the beginning of a
root word to form a new word with a new meaning.
pretend reading
Children's attempts to "read" a book before they have learned to read.
Usually children pretend read a familiar book that they have practically
memorized.
print awareness Knowing about print and books and how they
are used.
root word A word or word part to which a prefix or suffix is
added.
segmentation Taking spoken words apart sound by sound.
sight words Words that a reader recognizes without having to sound them out.
Some sight words are "irregular," or have letter-sound relationships
that are uncommon. Some examples of sight words are you, are, have, and
said.
suffix A word part such as -ness, -able, or -er that is added to
the end of a root word to form a new word with a new meaning.
syllable A
word part that contains a vowel or, in spoken language, a vowel sound
(e-vent, news-pa-per, pret-ty).
vocabulary The words we must know in
order to communicate effectively. Oral vocabulary refers to words that
we use in speaking or recognize in listening. Reading vocabulary refers
to words we recognize or use in print.
word walls Word-study and
vocabulary words that are posted on the classroom wall so all children
can easily see them. Usually, word walls are arranged alphabetically,
with words starting with a certain letter listed under that letter for
easy location.
word recognition The ability to identify printed words
and to translate them into their corresponding sounds quickly and
accurately so as to figure out their meanings.
Bibliography
Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson,
I. A. G. (1985). Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the
Commission on Reading. Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Reading;
Washington, DC: National Institute of Education.
Dickinson, D. K., &
Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language: Young Children
Learning at Home and School. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing
Co.
Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2000). The Scientist in
the Crib. New York: Harper Perennial.
National Reading Panel. (2000).
Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the
Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for
Reading Instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development.
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.).
(1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.
Suggested reading for parents and caregivers
Here are some books that can provide you with more information about
early reading and writing.
Apel, K., & Masterson, J. (2001). Beyond Baby
Talk: From Sounds to Sentences, a Parent's Guide to Language
Development. Roseville, CA: Prima Publishing.
Armbruster, B. B., Lehr,
F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put Reading First: The Research Building Blocks
for Teaching Children to Read: Kindergarten Through Grade 3. Washington,
DC: National Institute for Literacy (available online at
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading)
Burns, M. S., Griffin, P., & Snow,
C. E. (Eds.). (1999). Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting Children's
Reading Success. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hall, S. L., &
Moats, L. C. (1998). Straight Talk about Reading: How Parents Can Make a
Difference during the Early Years. Chicago: NTC Publishing Group.
Neuman, S. B., Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to Read and
Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children.
Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. L. (1999). Right from Birth:
Building Your Child's Foundation for Life. New York: Goddard Press.
U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency
Affairs. (2002). Helping Your Child Become a Reader. Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Intergovernmental and
Interagency Affairs. (2002). Helping Your Preschool Child. Washington,
DC.
Resources for parents and caregivers
The following government groups can
provide you with useful information about learning to read.
The Partnership for Reading
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading
Even Start Family Literacy Program
Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education
www.ericeece.org
Parent Information Network (NPIN)
www.npin.org
Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication
www.indiana.edu/~eric_rec
Institute for Literacy (NIFL)
www.nifl.gov
No Child Left Behind for Parents
www.nochildleftbehind.gov/parents/index.html
Partnership for Family Involvement in Education
If you have young children between the ages of birth and age 4,
look for the booklet
A Child becomes a Reader: Birth through Preschool.
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading
To order copies of this booklet, contact the National Institute for
Literacy at EdPubs, PO Box 1398, Jessup, MD 20794-1398. Call
800-228-8813 or email edpuborders@edpubs.gov. This booklet can also be
downloaded at The Partnership for Reading web site,
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading.
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